Don Quixote, written by Miguel de Cervantes and published in two parts (1605 and 1615), is widely regarded as the first modern novel and a cornerstone of Western literature. Set in early 17th-century Spain, it emerged during the Spanish Golden Age, a period of cultural flourishing amid political decline. Cervantes, a former soldier and captive, wrote the novel partly to satirize the popular chivalric romances that captivated readers, reflecting a shift toward realism in literature. The story follows Alonso Quixano, a minor noble whose obsession with knightly tales drives him to become the delusional “Don Quixote,” embarking on absurd quests with his pragmatic squire, Sancho Panza. Blending humor, pathos, and metafiction, the novel explores the tension between idealism and reality, influencing countless works and establishing the novel as a literary form.

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The Divine Comedy, written by Dante Alighieri between 1308 and 1321, is an epic poem considered one of the greatest works of Western literature. Composed during Dante’s exile from Florence due to political conflicts between the Guelphs and Ghibellines, it reflects his personal struggles, theological convictions, and critique of contemporary society. Written in the Tuscan vernacular, it elevated Italian as a literary language. The poem narrates Dante’s allegorical journey through Hell (Inferno), Purgatory (Purgatorio), and Paradise (Paradiso), guided by Virgil and Beatrice, exploring themes of sin, redemption, and divine love. Set notionally in 1300, it weaves medieval Christian theology, classical philosophy, and political commentary into a vivid, structured vision of the afterlife.

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The Iliad, attributed to the ancient Greek poet Homer, is one of the oldest and most influential works of Western literature, likely composed in the 8th century BCE. Set during the Trojan War, it narrates a few weeks in the conflict’s tenth year, focusing on Achilles’ wrath and its consequences. Though rooted in oral storytelling traditions, the Iliad was likely written down after centuries of recitation by bards, drawing on myths and historical memories of Bronze Age conflicts (c. 1200 BCE). Its companion, the Odyssey, completes Homer’s epic cycle. Preserved through manuscripts and revered in ancient Greece, the Iliad shaped literature, philosophy, and art, with its themes of honor, mortality, and divine intervention resonating through the ages. Its text was standardized in the Hellenistic period, and translations, from ancient Greek to modern languages, continue to captivate readers worldwide.

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